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Send this Playlist by SMS
Dina Garipova - What If (Russia) Second Rehearsal
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:13
- Updated: 21 May 2013
Powered by http://www.eurovision.tv Dina Garipova is a young and talented singer who is originally from the Republic of Tatarstan. She got famous in Russia a...
http://wn.com/Dina_Garipova_What_If_Russia_Second_Rehearsal
Powered by http://www.eurovision.tv Dina Garipova is a young and talented singer who is originally from the Republic of Tatarstan. She got famous in Russia a...
'Iran, Russia true friends of Syrians'
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:45
- Updated: 11 May 2013
https://www.youtube.com/user/LatestBestNews Press TV has conducted an interview with Anas Jaboua, with the Syrian Social Club from London. Follow our Faceboo...
http://wn.com/'Iran,_Russia_true_friends_of_Syrians'
https://www.youtube.com/user/LatestBestNews Press TV has conducted an interview with Anas Jaboua, with the Syrian Social Club from London. Follow our Faceboo...
- published: 11 May 2013
- views: 37
- author: LatestBestNews
Russia TV - Russia Victory Day Parade 2013 : Full Air Force Segment [1080p]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:32
- Updated: 21 May 2013
http://wn.com/Russia_TV_Russia_Victory_Day_Parade_2013_Full_Air_Force_Segment_1080p_
Acrobatic Gymnastics World Cup 2011 Russia 1, Women's Pair
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:35
- Updated: 14 May 2013
Final stages of Acrobatic Gymnastics World Cup Women's Pair (ITA) Forlì 13/11/2011 1st Place for Valentina Kim and Elizaveta Dubrovina (RUS) Difficulty: 10.0...
http://wn.com/Acrobatic_Gymnastics_World_Cup_2011_Russia_1,_Women's_Pair
Final stages of Acrobatic Gymnastics World Cup Women's Pair (ITA) Forlì 13/11/2011 1st Place for Valentina Kim and Elizaveta Dubrovina (RUS) Difficulty: 10.0...
- published: 11 May 2013
- views: 564
- author: Elforestiero
Syrian opposition: Russia's position changing
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:50
- Updated: 13 May 2013
CNN's Fionnuala Sweeney talks to Khalid Saleh of the Syrian opposition about Russia's role in peace negotiations.
http://wn.com/Syrian_opposition_Russia's_position_changing
CNN's Fionnuala Sweeney talks to Khalid Saleh of the Syrian opposition about Russia's role in peace negotiations.
- published: 08 May 2013
- views: 1058
- author: CNN
France - Russia 2-1 [IIHF WC 2013][All goals][HQ]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:03
- Updated: 20 May 2013
France - Russia 2-1.
http://wn.com/France_Russia_2-1_IIHF_WC_2013_All_goals_HQ_
ESCKAZ live in Malmö: Dina Garipova (Russia) - 2nd rehearsal (10.05.2013.)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:02
- Updated: 19 May 2013
http://esckaz.com/2013/ Team of ESCKAZ.com reporting live from Eurovision Song Contest 2013 in Malmö, Sweden. Russia - Dina Garipova - What If.
http://wn.com/ESCKAZ_live_in_Malmö_Dina_Garipova_Russia_2nd_rehearsal_10052013
http://esckaz.com/2013/ Team of ESCKAZ.com reporting live from Eurovision Song Contest 2013 in Malmö, Sweden. Russia - Dina Garipova - What If.
- published: 10 May 2013
- views: 5682
- author: EurovisionKZ
Just Another Normal Day In Russia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:01
- Updated: 19 May 2013
Meanwhile in Russia. (dash cam date incorrect, happened recently). Join Us On Facebook http://www.facebook.com/MeanwhileRussia Автор: Andrey Zenkov http://ww...
http://wn.com/Just_Another_Normal_Day_In_Russia
Meanwhile in Russia. (dash cam date incorrect, happened recently). Join Us On Facebook http://www.facebook.com/MeanwhileRussia Автор: Andrey Zenkov http://ww...
- published: 08 May 2013
- views: 13612
- author: MeanwhileRussia
Driving in Russia May 2013 ( Road Rage and Accidents ) Part 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:03
- Updated: 21 May 2013
We're uploading new compilations every week! Friday - Drving in Russia Sunday - Funny videos of people falling FACEBOOK - https://www.facebook.com/pages/AMIC...
http://wn.com/Driving_in_Russia_May_2013_Road_Rage_and_Accidents_Part_2
We're uploading new compilations every week! Friday - Drving in Russia Sunday - Funny videos of people falling FACEBOOK - https://www.facebook.com/pages/AMIC...
- published: 10 May 2013
- views: 13124
- author: Amicobbb Funny Videos!
WNBA in Russia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:38
- Updated: 23 May 2013
Diana Taurasi, Candace Parker and Sue Bird give an all-access look at their lives on and off the court in Russia, where they were teammates for UMMC Ekaterin...
http://wn.com/WNBA_in_Russia
Diana Taurasi, Candace Parker and Sue Bird give an all-access look at their lives on and off the court in Russia, where they were teammates for UMMC Ekaterin...
- published: 09 May 2013
- views: 9636
- author: WNBA
Joel Richardson End Times Prophecy & Russia & Middle East
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:35
- Updated: 18 May 2013
New York Times best selling author talks about the country coming against Israel in the final days. http://messianicjudaismnetwork-com.webs.com.
http://wn.com/Joel_Richardson_End_Times_Prophecy_Russia_Middle_East
New York Times best selling author talks about the country coming against Israel in the final days. http://messianicjudaismnetwork-com.webs.com.
- published: 05 May 2013
- views: 263
- author: meypole
Candace Parker's Life in Russia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:16
- Updated: 23 May 2013
Candace Parker of the Los Angeles Sparks is not only one of the top players in the world, she's mom to "Lailaa". Take an All-Access look at Candace Parker as...
http://wn.com/Candace_Parker's_Life_in_Russia
Candace Parker of the Los Angeles Sparks is not only one of the top players in the world, she's mom to "Lailaa". Take an All-Access look at Candace Parker as...
- published: 08 May 2013
- views: 11099
- author: WNBA
US and Russia bid to revive Syria peace talks
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:03
- Updated: 14 May 2013
The United States and Russia have agreed to push both sides in Syria to find an end to the bloodshed, offering to hold an international conference in search ...
http://wn.com/US_and_Russia_bid_to_revive_Syria_peace_talks
The United States and Russia have agreed to push both sides in Syria to find an end to the bloodshed, offering to hold an international conference in search ...
- published: 08 May 2013
- views: 1225
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
US and Russia bid to revive Syria peace talks
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:38
- Updated: 11 May 2013
The United States and Russia have agreed to push both sides in Syria to find an end to the bloodshed, offering to hold an international conference in search ...
http://wn.com/US_and_Russia_bid_to_revive_Syria_peace_talks
The United States and Russia have agreed to push both sides in Syria to find an end to the bloodshed, offering to hold an international conference in search ...
- published: 08 May 2013
- views: 1953
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
Ennio Morricone - From Russia - EnnioMorricone
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:45
- Updated: 11 May 2013
EnnioMorricone -- (Re)Discover his Greatest Hits - EnnioMorricone is your channel for some of the best Original motion picture soundtracks. Find your favorit...
http://wn.com/Ennio_Morricone_From_Russia_EnnioMorricone
EnnioMorricone -- (Re)Discover his Greatest Hits - EnnioMorricone is your channel for some of the best Original motion picture soundtracks. Find your favorit...
- published: 11 May 2013
- views: 76
- author: EnnioMorricone
May 3 2013 Russia Launches Surprise Military Exercise in Black Sea end times news update 4-26-13
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:21
- Updated: 23 May 2013
May 3 2013 Russia Launches Surprise Military Exercise in Black Sea end times news update 4-26-13 Russian President Vladimir Putin has launched a large-scale ...
http://wn.com/May_3_2013_Russia_Launches_Surprise_Military_Exercise_in_Black_Sea_end_times_news_update_4-26-13
May 3 2013 Russia Launches Surprise Military Exercise in Black Sea end times news update 4-26-13 Russian President Vladimir Putin has launched a large-scale ...
- published: 23 Feb 2013
- views: 520524
- author: u2bheavenbound
Al Qaeda + USA Attack Russia Post 9/11, CIA - Hollywood Connection & More Conspiracy News on Buzzsaw
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 41:32
- Updated: 23 May 2013
A whistleblower backed by FBI documents alleges Al Qaeda worked with the US to destabilize the Caucus region of Russia after 9/11, and we talk about it here ...
http://wn.com/Al_Qaeda_+_USA_Attack_Russia_Post_9_11,_CIA_Hollywood_Connection_More_Conspiracy_News_on_Buzzsaw
A whistleblower backed by FBI documents alleges Al Qaeda worked with the US to destabilize the Caucus region of Russia after 9/11, and we talk about it here ...
- published: 11 May 2013
- views: 4186
- author: thelip.tv
Моя Россия, моя страна! / My Russia, my country!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:00
- Updated: 11 May 2013
Концерт учащихся Детской школы искусств № 7. Шоу-группа «Солнечные» Руководитель Е.Д. Нечепоренко. Concert of students of School of Art № 7. Show-group "Sola...
http://wn.com/Моя_Россия,_моя_страна!_My_Russia,_my_country!
Концерт учащихся Детской школы искусств № 7. Шоу-группа «Солнечные» Руководитель Е.Д. Нечепоренко. Concert of students of School of Art № 7. Show-group "Sola...
- published: 10 May 2013
- views: 18
- author: Natalia Stoyakina
Russia Contacted FBI Multiple Times on Boston Bombers?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:44
- Updated: 27 Apr 2013
Rep. Peter King says, intelligence isn't working well as it should when it came to the Boston bombings . Normaly Peter King is someone who I watch just to ha...
http://wn.com/Russia_Contacted_FBI_Multiple_Times_on_Boston_Bombers?
Rep. Peter King says, intelligence isn't working well as it should when it came to the Boston bombings . Normaly Peter King is someone who I watch just to ha...
- published: 24 Apr 2013
- views: 36
- author: TheZoomanager
Export to Russia - B2B - 45
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 38:48
- Updated: 10 May 2013
"Бизнесээс Бизнесрүү" цуврал нэвтрүүлэг нь бизнес эрхлэгч, судлаач, сонирхогч хүмүүст бизнесийн боловсрол олгох мөн бизнесийг хөгжлүүлэх зорилготой нэвтрүүлэг юм.
http://wn.com/Export_to_Russia_B2B_45
"Бизнесээс Бизнесрүү" цуврал нэвтрүүлэг нь бизнес эрхлэгч, судлаач, сонирхогч хүмүүст бизнесийн боловсрол олгох мөн бизнесийг хөгжлүүлэх зорилготой нэвтрүүлэг юм.
- published: 10 May 2013
- views: 4
720p █ RUSSIA - FRANCE 1:2 █ Goals █ IIHF WC 2013 Голы ЧМ Россия Франция
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:39
- Updated: 14 May 2013
http://www.russianhockey.de IIHF World Championship 2013, All Goals, Russia - France 5:3, Россия - Франция 5:0, ЧМ 2013, WC 2013, Чемпионат Мира по хоккею.
http://wn.com/720p_█_RUSSIA_FRANCE_12_█_Goals_█_IIHF_WC_2013_Голы_ЧМ_Россия_Франция
http://www.russianhockey.de IIHF World Championship 2013, All Goals, Russia - France 5:3, Россия - Франция 5:0, ЧМ 2013, WC 2013, Чемпионат Мира по хоккею.
- published: 10 May 2013
- views: 734
- author: RussianhockeyDOTde
Training (Godunow - MSC) 06.05.2013 Russia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:32
- Updated: 10 May 2013
http://wn.com/Training_Godunow_MSC_06052013_Russia
- published: 10 May 2013
- views: 16
'Iran will defend Syria, US & Israel should take that seriously'
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:47
- Updated: 23 May 2013
Syria has filed an official complaint to the United Nations over an Israeli airstrike on a military research center near Damascus. The move followed a threat...
http://wn.com/'Iran_will_defend_Syria,_US_Israel_should_take_that_seriously'
Syria has filed an official complaint to the United Nations over an Israeli airstrike on a military research center near Damascus. The move followed a threat...
- published: 31 Jan 2013
- views: 89425
- author: RT
photo: AP / Alastair Grant
23 May 2013
May 23, 2013 -- Updated 0227 GMT (1027 HKT). London (CNN) -- Security experts are starting to analyze events leading up to the horrific cleaver attack of a man believed to be a British soldier on the suburban streets of London. One key line of inquiry they'll be following among the many leads. How does this attack relate to other incidents around the world? ... READ. Victim hacked to death ... Terrorism expert on London attack. Cameron ... Witness ... ]....(size: 9.8Kb)
photo: AP / Salisu Rabiu
21 May 2013
ENUGU, Nigeria (AP) — Nigeria's military said Tuesday that the West African nation would release some of the prisoners it has taken in the country's fight against Islamic extremists — including all the women now held in custody ... The leader of the Islamic extremist network Boko Haram, the main group now fighting the government, repeatedly has mentioned security agencies arresting members' women and children. In the statement, Brig. Gen ... ....(size: 4.2Kb)
photo: US Navy / Alan Radecki courtesy Northrop Grumman
21 May 2013
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. "If the mainspring of popular government in peacetime is virtue, in revolution it is both virtue and terror. virtue without terror is fatal; terror without virtue is powerless."-Maximilien Robespierre speaking to France's National Convention, 1794. If the French Revolution gave the world a new and enlightened but terrorist means of killing, so did America's Global War on Terror....(size: 5.9Kb)
photo: AP / Jon Super
23 May 2013
The former South Africa international remarks that it would be "very strange" to see the forward in a different shirt and hopes that new boss David Moyes will carry on winning EXCLUSIVE. By Juliet Bawuah. Former Manchester United defender Quinton Fortune feels that it would be "very strange" to see Wayne Rooney playing for another club ... MANCHESTER UNITED LATEST ... "I can't see Rooney playing anywhere else," he told Goal ... ....(size: 3.0Kb)
photo: AP / Ibrahim Usta
23 May 2013
The US Secretary of State is warning Syria's President that the opposition will be given wide support if Bashar al-Assad refuses to negotiate on a peace deal. John Kerry is meeting with foreign ministers in the Jordanian capital, in an attempt to end the two-year conflict. Kerry said the US will respond if Assad fails to come to a peaceful solution. Al Jazeera's Nisreen El-Shamayleh reports from Amman. 68 Source.. Al Jazeera ... Report ... " /> ... ....(size: 4.8Kb)
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New Straits/Business Times
24 May 2013
... several minutes after they announced one, following an earthquake in the Sea of Okhotsk off Russia’s eastern coast....(size: 0.6Kb)
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The Washington Post
24 May 2013
MOSCOW — Russia’s foreign ministry says the Syrian government has agreed to a conference on the country’s future proposed by Russia and the United States. Foreign Ministry spokesman Alexander Lukashevich said in televised remarks on Friday that the Syrian government had “agreed in principle” to participate in the conference in Geneva which is expected within two weeks. Photos of the day ... World Digest ... ....(size: 2.4Kb)
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Daily Press
24 May 2013
MOSCOW (Reuters) - Russia said on Friday the Syrian government had agreed in principle to attend an international peace conference proposed by Russia and the United States, and criticized what it called attempts to undermine peace efforts ... Moscow (Russia) ... Russia has ......(size: 1.5Kb)
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noodls
24 May 2013
From May 8 to 14, they held signing ceremonies in Seoul, South Korea, and Moscow, Russia, respectively, signing 5 tourism cooperation agreements with Cheongju Tourist Bureau, and South Korean travel companies like Modetour and Estonia; the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Federation (RF CCI, Russia), the Russia Association for Non-visa Travel and the Russian International Travel Service....(size: 2.2Kb)
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The New York Times
24 May 2013
A May 21 editorial asked, “Why Is Russia Still Arming Syria?” The answer is very simple — because President Obama’s “reset” with Russia is a complete failure. Russia’s continued support for President Bashar al-Assad is one of the main reasons that more than 70,000 people have been slaughtered in the current conflict ... The absurdity of thinking that Russia is going to cooperate with us on Syria is self-evident....(size: 3.3Kb)
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North Jersey
24 May 2013
BEIRUT (AP) — The Syrian government has agreed "in principle" to attend a conference proposed by Russia and the United States on ending the Arab country's conflict, Russia's foreign ministry said Friday ... Russia and the U.S ... Russia's Foreign Ministry spokesman Alexander Lukashevich said in televised remarks Friday that the Syrian government has ......(size: 2.1Kb)
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Stuff
24 May 2013
An 8.2 undersea earthquake has struck almost 400km off the the coast of Russia. The quake struck at about 5.45pm (NZT) under the Sea of Okhotsk off Russia's eastern coast, according to the US Geological Survey ... The main city of Kamchatka is home to a nuclear submarine base and Russia's ......(size: 1.5Kb)
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BBC News
24 May 2013
A powerful earthquake has struck off the Kamchatka peninsula in Russia's far east ... Soon after the earthquake, tremors were felt across Russia but ......(size: 0.8Kb)
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Novosti
24 May 2013
MOSCOW, May 24 (RIA Novosti) – Vkontakte, Russia’s biggest social networking site, was put on a state registry of blacklisted websites by mistake earlier today, a spokesman for Russia's telecoms watchdog Roskomnadzor said....(size: 1.2Kb)
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Independent online (SA)
24 May 2013
Moscow - Russia said on Friday that the Syrian government had agreed in principle to attend an international peace conference proposed by Russia and the United States, and criticised what it called attempts to undermine peace efforts....(size: 1.2Kb)
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Newstrack India
24 May 2013
New Delhi, May 24 (IANS) His grandfather Raj Kapoor is adored in Russia, and now Ranbir Kapoor's forthcoming film "Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani" is being lined up for release there in July. The movie is likely to hit screens in Russia July 4 ... Eros also plans to promote their films in Russia alongside the ......(size: 1.7Kb)
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noodls
24 May 2013
(Source. Raven Russia Ltd). TR-1. NOTIFICATION OF MAJOR INTEREST IN SHARESi. 1. Identity of the issuer or the underlying issuer. of existing shares to which voting rights are. attached. ii. Raven Russia Limited. 2 Reason for the notification (please tick the appropriate box or boxes).. An acquisition or disposal of voting rights. X ... An event changing the breakdown of voting rights ... 3 ... iii. Invesco Limited ... This noodl was issued by Raven Russia Ltd....(size: 5.3Kb)
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Skynews
24 May 2013
Marina Kolomiyets, from the Russian Academy of Sciences, said it originated 375 miles under the sea bed in the Sea of Okhotsk, just off Russia's east coast and north of Japan ... "There were repercussions of the quake in Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow and Europe, in particular Romania," said Anatoly Tsygankov from Russia's Rosgidromet environmental monitoring service....(size: 1.9Kb)
This article is about the current country. For other uses, see Russia (disambiguation).
"Russian Federation" redirects here. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic was also alternatively called the "Russian Federation".
| Russian Federation
Российская Федерация
Rossiyskaya Federatsiya |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
||||||
Anthem:
 (tr.: Gosudarstvenny gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii) (State Anthem of the Russian Federation) |
||||||
.svg) |
||||||
| Capital (and largest city) |
Moscow 55°45′N 37°37′E / 55.75°N 37.617°E / 55.75; 37.617 |
|||||
| Official language(s) | Russian official throughout the country; 27 others co-official in various regions | |||||
| Ethnic groups (2010) | 81% Russians 3.7% Tatars 1.4% Ukrainians 1.1% Bashkirs 1% Chuvashes 11.8% others and unspecified[1] |
|||||
| Demonym | Russian | |||||
| Government | Federal semi-presidential constitutional republic | |||||
| - | President | Vladimir Putin | ||||
| - | Prime Minister | Dmitry Medvedev | ||||
| Legislature | Federal Assembly | |||||
| - | Upper house | Federation Council | ||||
| - | Lower house | State Duma | ||||
| Formation | ||||||
| - | Rurik Dynasty | 862 | ||||
| - | Kievan Rus' | 882 | ||||
| - | Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' | 1169 | ||||
| - | Grand Duchy of Moscow | 1283 | ||||
| - | Tsardom of Russia | 16 January 1547 | ||||
| - | Russian Empire | 22 October 1721 | ||||
| - | Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic | 7 November 1917 | ||||
| - | Union of Soviet Socialist Republics | 10 December 1922 | ||||
| - | Russian Federation | 25 December 1991 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 17,075,400 km2 (1st) 6,592,800 sq mi |
||||
| - | Water (%) | 13[2] (including swamps) | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2012 estimate | 143,030,106[3] (8th) | ||||
| - | Density | 8.3/km2 (217th) 21.5/sq mi |
||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2011 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $2.383 trillion[4] | ||||
| - | Per capita | $16,736[4] | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2011 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $1.850 trillion[4] | ||||
| - | Per capita | $12,993[4] | ||||
| Gini (2008) | 42.3[5] (83rd) | |||||
| HDI (2011) |  0.755[6] (high) (66th) |
|||||
| Currency | Ruble (RUB) |
|||||
| Time zone | (UTC+3 to +12 (exc. +5)) | |||||
| Date formats | dd.mm.yyyy | |||||
| Drives on the | right | |||||
| ISO 3166 code | RU | |||||
| Internet TLD | .ru, .su, .рф | |||||
| Calling code | +7 | |||||
Russia 
i/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] (
listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation[7] (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia.[8] It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people.[9] It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources[10] and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally.[11][12] Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.[13]
The nation's history began with that of the East Slavs, who emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD.[14] Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, the medieval state of Rus arose in the 9th century. In 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire,[15] beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium.[15] Rus' ultimately disintegrated into a number of smaller states; most of the Rus' lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion and became tributaries of the nomadic Golden Horde.[16] The Grand Duchy of Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities, achieved independence from the Golden Horde, and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus'. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, and exploration to become the Russian Empire, which was the third largest empire in history, stretching from Poland in Europe to Alaska in North America.[17][18]
Following the Russian Revolution, Russia became the largest and leading constituent of the Soviet Union, the world's first constitutionally socialist state and a recognized superpower,[19] which played a decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II.[20][21] The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the world's first human spaceflight. The Russian Federation was founded following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, but is recognized as the continuing legal personality of the Soviet state.[22]
The Russian economy is the world's ninth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity, with the 3rd largest nominal military budget. Russia is one of the world's fastest growing major economies. It is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.[23] Russia is a great power and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a member of the G8, G20, the Council of Europe, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the Eurasian Economic Community, the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the World Trade Organisation (WTO), and is the leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States.
Contents |
Etymology[link]
Main articles: Rus' people and Rus (name)
The name Russia is derived from Rus, a medieval state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this proper name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants "Русская Земля" (russkaya zemlya) which could be translated as "Russian Land" or "Land of Rus'". In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus' by modern historiography. The name Rus' itself comes from Rus people, a group of Varangians (possibly Swedish Vikings)[24][25] who founded the state of Rus (Русь).
An old Latin version of the name Rus' was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus' that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия (Rossiya), comes from the Greek version of Rus', nowadays spelled Ρωσία [rosˈia] instead of Ρωσσία, which was the denomination of Kievan Rus in the Byzantine Empire.[26]
History[link]
Main article: History of Russia
Early periods[link]
One of the first modern human bones of the age of 35 000 years was found in Russia, in Kostenki on the Don River banks.[citation needed] The only remains of the Denisova hominin that lived about 41,000 years ago were discovered in Denisova Cave (South Siberia).[citation needed]
In prehistoric times the vast steppes of Southern Russia were home to tribes of nomadic pastoralists.[27] Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in such places as Ipatovo,[27] Sintashta,[28] Arkaim,[29] and Pazyryk,[30] which bear the earliest known traces of mounted warfare, a key feature in nomadic way of life.
In classical antiquity, the Pontic Steppe was known as Scythia. Since the 8th century BC, Ancient Greek traders brought their civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais and Phanagoria.[31] In 3rd – 4th centuries AD a semi-legendary Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in Southern Russia till it was overrun by Huns. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD, the Bosporan Kingdom, a Hellenistic polity which succeeded the Greek colonies,[32] was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes, such as the Huns and Eurasian Avars.[33] A Turkic people, the Khazars, ruled the lower Volga basin steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas until the 8th century.[34]
The ancestors of modern Russians are the Slavic tribes, whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the Pinsk Marshes.[35] The East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia in two waves: one moving from Kiev toward present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk toward Novgorod and Rostov. From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia[36] and slowly but peacefully assimilated the native Finno-Ugric peoples, including the Merya, the Muromians, and the Meshchera.
Kievan Rus[link]
The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of Varangians, the traders, warriors and settlers from the Baltic Sea region. Primarily they were Vikings of Scandinavian origin, who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas.[37] According to the Primary Chronicle, a Varangian from Rus' people, named Rurik, was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862. In 882 his successor Oleg, ventured south and conquered Kiev,[38] which had been previously paying tribute to the Khazars; so the state of Kievan Rus' started. Oleg, Rurik's son Igor and Igor's son Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar khaganate and launched several military expeditions to Byzantium and Persia.
In the 10th to 11th centuries Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe.[39] The reigns of Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and his son Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) constitute the Golden Age of Kiev, which saw the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium and the creation of the first East Slavic written legal code, the Russkaya Pravda.
In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the Kipchaks and the Pechenegs, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, particularly to the area known as Zalesye.[40]
The age of feudalism and decentralization had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the Rurik Dynasty that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, Novgorod Republic in the north-west and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west.
Ultimately Kievan Rus' disintegrated, with the final blow being the Mongol invasion of 1237–40,[41] that resulted in the destruction of Kiev[42] and the death of about half the population of Rus'.[43] The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which pillaged the Russian principalities and ruled the southern and central expanses of Russia for over three centuries.[44]
Galicia-Volhynia was eventually assimilated by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod Republic, two regions on the periphery of Kiev, established the basis for the modern Russian nation.[15] The Novgorod together with Pskov retained some degree of autonomy during the time of the Mongol yoke and were largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of the country. Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240, as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle of the Ice in 1242, breaking their attempts to colonize the Northern Rus'.
Grand Duchy of Moscow[link]
Main article: Grand Duchy of Moscow
The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was the Grand Duchy of Moscow ("Moscovy" in the Western chronicles), initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal. While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the Central Rus' in the early 14th century, gradually becoming the main leading force in the process of the Rus' lands' reunification and expansion of Russia.
Those were hard times, with frequent Mongol-Tatar raids and agriculture suffering from the beginning of the Little Ice Age. Like in the rest of Europe, plagues hit Russia somewhere once every five or six years from 1350 to 1490. However, due to the lower population density and better hygiene (widespread practicing of banya, the wet steam bath),[45] the population loss caused by plagues was not so severe as in the Western Europe, and the pre-Plague populations were reached in Russia as early as 1500.[46]
Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow and helped by the Russian Orthodox Church, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. Moscow gradually absorbed the surrounding principalities, including the formerly strong rivals, such as Tver and Novgorod.
Ivan III (the Great) finally threw off the control of the Golden Horde, consolidated the whole of Central and Northern Rus' under Moscow's dominion, and was the first to take the title "Grand Duke of all the Russias".[47] After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow claimed succession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle his own, and eventually Russian, coat-of-arms.
Tsardom of Russia[link]
Main article: Tsardom of Russia
.JPG)
In development of the Third Rome ideas, the Grand Duke Ivan IV (the "Awesome"[48]) was officially crowned the first Tsar ("Caesar") of Russia in 1547. The Tsar promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (Zemsky Sobor) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions.[49][50]
During his long reign, Ivan the Terrible nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates (parts of disintegrated Golden Horde): Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga River, and Sibirean Khanate in South Western Siberia. Thus by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a multiethnic, multiconfessional and transcontinental state.
However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of Poland, Lithuania, and Sweden for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.[51] At the same time the Tatars of the Crimean Khanate, the only remaining successor to the Golden Horde, continued to raid Southern Russia.[52] In effort to restore the Volga khanates, Crimeans and their Ottoman allies invaded central Russia and were even able to burn down parts of Moscow in 1571.[53] But next year the large invading army was thoroughly defeated by Russians in the Battle of Molodi, forever eliminating the threat of the Ottoman-Crimean expansion into Russia. The raids of Crimeans, however, didn't cease until the late 17th century, though the construction of new fortification lines across Southern Russia, such as the Great Abatis Line, constantly narrowed the area accessible to incursions.
The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik Dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the famine of 1601–03[54] led to the civil war, the rule of pretenders and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century.[55] Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied parts of Russia, including Moscow. In 1612 the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by two national heroes, merchant Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. The Romanov Dynasty acceded the throne in 1613 by the decision of Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.
Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of Cossacks. Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities, resembling pirates and pioneers of the New World. In 1648, the peasants of Ukraine joined the Zaporozhian Cossacks in rebellion against Poland-Lithuania during the Khmelnytsky Uprising, because of the social and religious oppression they suffered under Polish rule. In 1654 the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar, Aleksey I. Aleksey's acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War (1654–1667). Finally, Ukraine was split along the Dnieper River, leaving the western part (or Right-bank Ukraine) under Polish rule and eastern part (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian. Later, in 1670–71 the Don Cossacks led by Stenka Razin initiated a major uprising in the Volga Region, but the Tsar's troops were successful in defeating the rebels.
In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of the huge territories of Siberia was led mostly by Cossacks hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian River Routes, and by the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in Eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the Pacific coast. In 1648 the Bering Strait between Asia and North America was passed for the first time by Fedot Popov and Semyon Dezhnyov.
Imperial Russia[link]
Main article: Russian Empire
Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an Empire in 1721 and became recognized as a world power. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War, forcing it to cede West Karelia and Ingria (two regions lost by Russia in the Time of Troubles),[56] as well as Estland and Livland, securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade.[57] On the Baltic Sea Peter founded a new capital called Saint Petersburg, later known as Russia's Window to Europe. Peter the Great's reforms brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia.
The reign of Peter I's daughter Elizabeth in 1741–62 saw Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War (1756–63). During this conflict Russia annexed East Prussia for a while and even took Berlin. However, upon Elisabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia.
Catherine II (the Great), who ruled in 1762–96, presided over the Age of Russian Enlightenment. She extended Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and incorporated most of its territories into Russia during the Partitions of Poland, pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe. In the south, after successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, defeating the Crimean Khanate. As a result of victories over the Ottomans, by the early 19th century Russia also made significant territorial gains in Transcaucasia. This continued with Alexander I's (1801–25) wresting of Finland from the weakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812. At the same time Russians colonized Alaska and even founded settlements in California, like Fort Ross.
In 1803–06 the first Russian circumnavigation was made, later followed by other notable Russian sea exploration voyages. In 1820 a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica.
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In alliances with various European countries, Russia fought against Napoleon's France. The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 failed miserably as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian Winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which more than 95% of the pan-European Grande Armée perished.[58] Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly, the Russian army ousted Napoleon from the country and drove through Europe in the war of the Sixth Coalition, finally entering Paris. Alexander I headed Russia's delegation at the Congress of Vienna that defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.
The officers of the Napoleonic Wars brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia with them and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825. At the end of the conservative reign of Nicolas I (1825–55) a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War. Between 1847 and 1851 a massive wave of Asiatic cholera swept over Russia, claiming about one million lives.[59]
Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–81) enacted significant changes in the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861. These Great Reforms spurred industrialization and modernized the Russian army, which had successfully liberated Bulgaria from Ottoman rule in 1877–78 Russo-Turkish War.
The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was killed in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists, and the reign of his son Alexander III (1881–94) was less liberal but more peaceful. The last Russian Emperor, Nicholas II (1894–1917), was unable to prevent the events of the Russian Revolution of 1905, triggered by the unsuccessful Russo-Japanese War and the demonstration incident known as Bloody Sunday. The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms, including granting the freedoms of speech and assembly, the legalization of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma of the Russian Empire. Migration to Siberia increased rapidly in the early 20th century, particularly during the Stolypin agrarian reform. Between 1906 and 1914 more than four million settlers arrived in that region.[60]
In 1914 Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Russia's ally Serbia, and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies. In 1916 the Brusilov Offensive of the Russian Army almost completely destroyed the military of Austria-Hungary. However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, high casualties, and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two major acts.
The February Revolution forced Nicholas II to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and later executed during the Russian Civil War. The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Provisional Government. An alternative socialist establishment existed alongside, the Petrograd Soviet, wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called Soviets. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country, instead of resolving it. Eventually, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and created the world’s first socialist state.
Soviet Russia[link]
Main articles: Soviet Union, History of the Soviet Union, and Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
Following the October Revolution, a civil war broke out between the anti-communist White movement and the new Soviet regime with its Red Army. Russia lost its Ukrainian, Polish, Baltic, and Finnish territories by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the Central Powers in World War I. The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support of anti-Communist forces, while both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror. By the end of the civil war, the Russian economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged. Millions became White émigrés,[61] and the Povolzhye famine of 1921 claimed up to 5 million victims.[62]
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (called Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic at the time) together with the Ukrainian, Byelorussian, and Transcaucasion Soviet Socialist Republics, formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or Soviet Union, on 30 December 1922. Out of the 15 total republics that would make up the USSR, the Russian SFSR was the largest in terms of size, and making up over half of the total USSR population, dominated the union for its entire 69-year history.
Following Lenin's death in 1924, a troika had been designated to govern the Soviet Union. However, Joseph Stalin, an elected General Secretary of the Communist Party, managed to put down all opposition groups within the party and consolidate much power in his hands. Leon Trotsky, the main proponent of the world revolution, was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929, and Stalin's idea of Socialism in One Country became the primary line. The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge, a period of mass repressions in 1937–38, in which hundreds of thousands of people were executed, including military leaders convicted in coup d'état plots.[63]
Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a planned economy, industrialisation of the largely rural country, and collectivization of its agriculture. During this period of rapid economical and social changes, millions of people were sent to penal labor camps,[64] including many political convicts who opposed Stalin's rule, and millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[64] The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought, led to the Soviet famine of 1932–1933.[65] However, though with a heavy price, the Soviet Union was transformed from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time.
The Appeasement policy of Great Britain and France towards Adolf Hitler's annexations of Ruhr, Austria and finally of Czechoslovakia enlarged the might of Nazi Germany and put a threat of war to the Soviet Union. Around the same time the German Reich allied with the Empire of Japan, a rival of the USSR in the Far East and an open enemy in the Soviet–Japanese Border Wars in 1938–39.
In August 1939, after another failure of attempts to establish a counter-Nazism alliance with Britain and France, the Soviet government agreed to conclude the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, pledging non-aggression between the two countries and dividing their spheres of influence in Eastern Europe. While Hitler conquered Poland, France and other countries acting on single front at the start of the World War II, the USSR was able to build up its military and regain some of the former territories of the Russian Empire during the Soviet invasion of Poland and the Winter War.
On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany broke the non-aggression treaty and invaded the Soviet Union with the largest and most powerful invasion force in human history,[66] opening the largest theater of World War II. Although the German army had considerable success early on, their onslaught was halted in the Battle of Moscow. Subsequently the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–43,[67] and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943. Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941–44 by German and Finnish forces, suffering starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendering.[68] Under Stalin's administration and the leadership of such commanders as Georgy Zhukov and Konstantin Rokossovsky, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe in 1944–45 and captured Berlin in May 1945. In August 1945 the Soviet Army ousted Japanese from China's Manchukuo and North Korea, contributing to the allied victory over Japan.
The 1941–45 period of World War II is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War. In this conflict, which included many of the most lethal battle operations in human history, Soviet military and civilian deaths were 10.6 million and 15.9 million respectively,[69] accounting for about a third of all World War II casualties. The full demographic loss to the Soviet peoples was even greater.[70] The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation[71] but the Soviet Union emerged as an acknowledged superpower.
The Red Army occupied Eastern Europe after the war, including East Germany. Dependent socialist governments were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states. Becoming the world's second nuclear weapons power, the USSR established the Warsaw Pact alliance and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the United States and NATO. The Soviet Union supported revolutionary movements across the world, including the newly formed People's Republic of China, North Korea and, later on, Cuba. Significant amounts of the Soviet resources were allocated in aid to the other socialist states.[72]
After Stalin's death and a short period of collective rule, new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced the cult of personality of Stalin and launched the policy of de-Stalinization. Penal labor system was reformed and many prisoners were released and rehabilitated (many of them posthumously).[73] The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the Khrushchev Thaw. At the same time, tensions with the United States heightened when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the U.S. Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba.
In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, thus starting the Space Age. Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth aboard Vostok 1 manned spacecraft on 12 April 1961.
Following the ousting of voluntarist and erratic Khrushchev in 1964, another period of collective rule ensued, until Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of 1970s and the early 1980s was designated later as the Era of Stagnation, a period when the economic growth slowed and social policies became static. The 1965 Kosygin reform, aimed into partial decentralization of the Soviet economy and shifting the emphasis from heavy industry and weapons to light industry and consumer goods, was stifled by the conservative Communist leadership.
In 1979 the Soviet forces entered Afghanistan at the request of its communist government. The occupation drained economic resources and dragged on without achieving meaningful political results. Ultimately the Soviet Army was withdrawn from Afghanistan in 1989 because of international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerilla warfare (enhanced by the U.S.), and a lack of support from Soviet citizens.
From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end the period of stagnation in the country and democratise the government. However, this led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements. Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the second largest in the world,[74] but during its last years it was afflicted by shortages of goods in grocery stores, huge budget deficits, and explosive growth in money supply leading to inflation.[75]
By 1991, economic and political turmoil were beginning to boil over, as the Baltic republics chose to secede from the Union. On March 17, a referendum was held, to which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of preserving the Soviet Union as a renewed federation. In August 1991, a coup d'état attempt by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Despite the will expressed by the people, on 25 December 1991, the USSR was dissolved into 15 post-Soviet states.
Russian Federation[link]
Main article: History of Russia (1992–present)
Boris Yeltsin was elected the President of Russia in June 1991, in the first direct presidential election in Russian history. During and after the Soviet disintegration, wide-ranging reforms including privatisation and market and trade liberalization were being undertaken,[76] including the radical changes along the lines of "shock therapy" as recommended by the United States and International Monetary Fund.[77] All this resulted in a major economic crisis, characterized by 50% decline of both GDP and industrial output between 1990–95.[76][78]
The privatization largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government system. Many of the newly rich businesspeople took billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous capital flight.[79] The depression of state and economy led to the collapse of social services; the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed.[citation needed] Millions plunged into poverty, from 1.5% level of poverty in the late Soviet era, to 39–49% by mid-1993.[80] The 1990s saw extreme corruption and lawlessness, rise of criminal gangs and violent crime.[81]
The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the North Caucasus, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist Islamist insurrections. Since the Chechen separatists had declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and the Russian military. Terrorist attacks against civilians carried out by separatists, most notably the Moscow theater hostage crisis and Beslan school siege, caused hundreds of deaths and drew worldwide attention.
Russia took up the responsibility for settling the USSR's external debts, even though its population made up just half of the population of the USSR at the time of its dissolution.[82] High budget deficits caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis[83] and resulted in further GDP decline.[76]
On 31 December 1999 President Yeltsin resigned, handing the post to the recently appointed Prime Minister, Vladimir Putin, who then won the 2000 presidential election. Putin suppressed the Chechen insurgency, although sporadic violence still occurs throughout the Northern Caucasus. High oil prices and initially weak currency followed by increasing domestic demand, consumption and investments has helped the economy grow for nine straight years, improving the standard of living and increasing Russia's influence on the world stage.[84] While many reforms made during the Putin presidency have been generally criticized by Western nations as un-democratic,[85] Putin's leadership over the return of order, stability, and progress has won him widespread popularity in Russia.[86] Under Putin's rule, Russia has been in "a long process of regression culminated in a move from a hybrid to an authoritarian regime" according to the 2011 Democracy Index.[87] In the assessment of foreign observers, Russia has become "a corrupt, autocratic kleptocracy centred on the leadership of Vladimir Putin, in which officials, oligarchs and organised crime are bound together to create a "virtual mafia state.""[88][89]
On 2 March 2008, Dmitry Medvedev was elected President of Russia, whilst Putin became Prime Minister. Putin returned to the presidency following the 2012 presidential elections, and Medvedev was appointed Prime Minister.
Politics[link]
Main articles: Politics of Russia and Government of Russia
According to the Constitution of Russia, the country is a federation and semi-presidential republic, wherein the President is the head of state[90] and the Prime Minister is the head of government. The Russian Federation is fundamentally structured as a multi-party representative democracy, with the federal government composed of three branches:
- Legislative: The bicameral Federal Assembly, made up of the 450-member State Duma and the 166-member Federation Council, adopts federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse and the power of impeachment of the President.
- Executive: The President is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto legislative bills before they become law, and appoints the Cabinet and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.
- Judiciary: The Constitutional Court, Supreme Court, Supreme Court of Arbitration and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the President, interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem unconstitutional.
The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term (eligible for a second term, but not for a third consecutive term).[91] Ministries of the government are composed of the Premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). Leading political parties in Russia include United Russia, the Communist Party, the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, and A Just Russia.
Western observers have raised questions as to how much of Russia's political system corresponds to Western liberal democratic ideals. Academics have often complained about the difficulty of classifying Russia's political system. According Steve White, during the Putin presidency Russia made clear that it had no intention of establishing a "second edition" of the American or British political system, but rather a system that was closer to Russia's own traditions and circumstances.[92] Richard Sakwa wrote that the Russian government is undoubtedly considered legitimate by the great majority of the Russian people and seeks to deliver a set of public goods without appealing to extra-democratic logic to achieve them, but whether the system was becoming an illiberal or delegative democracy was more contentious.[93]
Foreign relations[link]
Main article: Foreign relations of Russia
The Russian Federation is recognized in international law as successor state of the former Soviet Union.[22] Russia continues to implement the international commitments of the USSR, and has assumed the USSR's permanent seat in the UN Security Council, membership in other international organisations, the rights and obligations under international treaties, and property and debts. Russia has a multifaceted foreign policy. As of 2009, it maintains diplomatic relations with 191 countries and has 144 embassies. The foreign policy is determined by the President and implemented by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia.[94]
As the successor to a former superpower, Russia's geopolitical status has been often debated, particularly in relation to unipolar and multipolar views on the global political system. While Russia is commonly accepted to be a great power, in recent years it has been characterized by a number of world leaders,[95][96] scholars,[97] commentators and politicians[98] as a currently reinstating or potential superpower.[99][100][101]
An important aspect of Russia's relations with the West is the criticism of Russia's political system and human rights management by the Western governments, the mass media and the leading democracy and human rights watchdogs. In particular, such organisations as the Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch consider Russia to have not enough democratic attributes and to allow few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.[102][103] Freedom House, an international organisation funded by the United States, ranks Russia as "not free", citing "carefully engineered elections" and "absence" of debate.[104] Russian authorities dismiss these claims and especially criticise Freedom House. The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs has called the 2006 Freedom in the World report "prefabricated", stating that the human rights issues have been turned into a political weapon in particular by the United States. The ministry also claims that such organisations as Freedom House and Human Rights Watch use the same scheme of voluntary extrapolation of "isolated facts that of course can be found in any country" into "dominant tendencies".[105]
As one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, Russia plays a major role in maintaining international peace and security. The country participates in the Quartet on the Middle East and the Six-party talks with North Korea. Russia is a member of the G8 industrialized nations, the Council of Europe, OSCE and APEC. Russia usually takes a leading role in regional organisations such as the CIS, EurAsEC, CSTO, and the SCO.[106] Former President Vladimir Putin had advocated a strategic partnership with close integration in various dimensions including establishment of EU-Russia Common Spaces.[107] Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia has developed a friendlier, albeit volatile relationship with NATO. The NATO-Russia Council was established in 2002 to allow the 26 Allies and Russia to work together as equal partners to pursue opportunities for joint collaboration.[108]
Russia maintains strong and positive relations with other BRIC countries. In recent years, the country has sought to strengthen ties especially with the People's Republic of China by signing the Treaty of Friendship as well as building the Trans-Siberian oil pipeline geared toward growing Chinese energy needs.[109]
Military[link]
Main article: Armed Forces of the Russian Federation
The Russian military is divided into the Ground Forces, Navy, and Air Force. There are also three independent arms of service: Strategic Missile Troops, Russian Space Forces, and the Airborne Troops. In 2006, the military had 1.037 million personnel on active duty.[110] It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for a year of service in Armed Forces.[84]
Russia has the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons in the world. It has the second largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines and is the only country apart from the U.S. with a modern strategic bomber force.[23][111] Russia's tank force is the largest in the world, its surface navy and air force are among the largest ones.
The country has a large and fully indigenous arms industry, producing most of its own military equipment with only few types of weapons imported. Russia is the world's top supplier of arms, a spot it has held since 2001, accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales[112] and exporting weapons to about 80 countries.[113]
Official government military spending for 2008 was $58 billion, the fifth largest in the world, though various sources have estimated Russia’s military expenditures to be considerably higher.[110][114] Currently, a major equipment upgrade worth about $200 billion is on its way between 2006 and 2015.[115]
Political divisions[link]
Main article: Subdivisions of Russia
- Federal subjects
The Russian Federation comprises 83 federal subjects.[116] These subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council.[117] However, they differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.
- 46 oblasts (provinces): most common type of federal subjects, with federally appointed governor and locally elected legislature.
- 21 republics: nominally autonomous; each has its own constitution, president or a similar post, and parliament. Republics are allowed to establish their own official language alongside Russian but are represented by the federal government in international affairs. Republics are meant to be home to specific ethnic minorities.
- 9 krais (territories): essentially the same as oblasts. The "territory" designation is historic, originally given to frontier regions and later also to the administrative divisions that comprised autonomous okrugs or autonomous oblasts.
- 4 autonomous okrugs (autonomous districts): originally autonomous entities within oblasts and krais created for ethnic minorities, their status was elevated to that of federal subjects in the 1990s. With the exception of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, all autonomous okrugs are still administratively subordinated to a krai or an oblast of which they are a part.
- 1 autonomous oblast (the Jewish Autonomous Oblast): historically, autonomous oblasts were administrative units subordinated to krais. In 1990, all of them except for the Jewish AO were elevated in status to that of a republic.
- 2 federal cities (Moscow and St. Petersburg): major cities that function as separate regions.
- Federal districts
Federal subjects are grouped into eight federal districts, each administered by an envoy appointed by the President of Russia.[118] Unlike the federal subjects, the federal districts are not a subnational level of government, but are a level of administration of the federal government. Federal districts' envoys serve as liaisons between the federal subjects and the federal government and are primarily responsible for overseeing the compliance of the federal subjects with the federal laws.
Geography[link]
Main articles: Geography of Russia and List of Russian explorers
Russia is the largest country in the world; its total area is 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi). There are 23 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Russia, 40 UNESCO biosphere reserves,[119] 40 national parks and 101 nature reserves. It lies between latitudes 41° and 82° N, and longitudes 19° E and 169° W.
Russia has a wide natural resource base, including major deposits of timber, petroleum, natural gas, coal, ores and other mineral resources.
Topography[link]
The two widest separated points in Russia are about 8,000 km (4,971 mi) apart along a geodesic line. These points are: the boundary with Poland on a 60 km (37 mi) long Vistula Spit separating the Gdańsk Bay from the Vistula Lagoon; and the farthest southeast of the Kuril Islands. The points which are furthest separated in longitude are 6,600 km (4,101 mi) apart along a geodesic line. These points are: in the west, the same spit; in the east, the Big Diomede Island. The Russian Federation spans 9 time zones.
Most of Russia consists of vast stretches of plains that are predominantly steppe to the south and heavily forested to the north, with tundra along the northern coast. Russia possesses 10% of the world's arable land.[120] Mountain ranges are found along the southern borders, such as the Caucasus (containing Mount Elbrus, which at 5,642 m (18,510 ft) is the highest point in both Russia and Europe) and the Altai (containing Mount Belukha, which at the 4,506 m (14,783 ft) is the highest point of Siberia outside of the Russian Far East); and in the eastern parts, such as the Verkhoyansk Range or the volcanoes of Kamchatka Peninsula (containing Klyuchevskaya Sopka, which at the 4,750 m (15,584 ft) is the highest active volcano in Eurasia as well as the highest point of Asian Russia). The Ural Mountains, rich in mineral resources, form a north-south range that divides Europe and Asia.
Russia has an extensive coastline of over 37,000 km (22,991 mi) along the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, as well as along the Baltic Sea, Sea of Azov, Black Sea and Caspian Sea.[84] The Barents Sea, White Sea, Kara Sea,